America Untold:
Forgotten heroes, Forgotten Stories
Scarlet Ingstad
Christian, Independent Author, Historian
Christian, Independent Author, Historian
Welcome back to "Revolutionary Voices!" For the September installment of this series, I introduce you to the man who became the first African-American double-agent, and whose intelligence directly affected the outcome of the final, decisive battle of the American Revolution: James Armistead Lafayette Joining the Fight James Armistead was born into slavery around 1760 and lived in New Kent, Virginia on a plantation owned by a man named William Armistead. William was involved in the Revolution through his work in managing the military supplies for the state of Virginia beginning in 1775. When the capital of Virginia transitioned from Williamsburg to Richmond in 1780, William moved his family and his enslaved persons (including James) to the new capital to continue his work for the Continental Army. In 1781, the Marquis de Lafayette was passing through James' region of Virginia during the southern campaign of the Revolution. Lafayette had a reputation for being a radical abolitionist as well as a successful commander under General George Washington. James requested permission from William to join the war under the service of Lafayette. William agreed, likely because it would bring him and his family honor to have one of their enslaved persons serve under the respected commander of the allied French forces. What motivated James to serve under Lafayette was unclear. It is likely that he believed if he served in the war, he would receive his freedom when it was over. Both the British and the Patriot forces promised freedom to enslaved persons who fought on their respective sides. It could also have been specifically because of Lafayette's reputation as an abolitionist and advocate for equality for all persons, regardless of their race, gender, or nationality. Either way, James believed serving in the war would result in freedom not only for the colonists, but also for himself. Infiltrating Enemy Lines James did not take up arms in the American Revolution. Instead, he infiltrated the British lines through espionage. Lafayette desperately needed information on the enemy to stop the losses his forces were incurring, primarily due to General Cornwallis and Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton. Lafayette's spies were continuously outed by the British and subsequently killed. These failed missions caused Lafayette to fear for the ultimate outcome of the war. The historical record around James' life contains quite a few gaps. During this time, James and Lafayette likely had a discussion about James going undercover as a spy. They agreed that James, as an enslaved man, would likely draw less attention than Lafayette's other spies. James posed as a runaway slave and quickly managed to infiltrate enemy lines--ironically through the infamous traitor Benedict Arnold's camp. He began his work by completing basic tasks expected of enslaved persons, casually placing himself where he could overhear the British commanders' discussions and plans. As his espionage efforts continued, a new and unexpected opportunity soon presented itself. Becoming a Double-Agent James possessed extensive knowledge of the Virginia terrain, having grown up and worked as a slave in the region his entire life. Cornwallis and Arnold saw an opportunity in James' knowledge of the Virginia region. He was sent out on foraging expeditions for the troops, spending a lot of time away from camp. This made it easier for James to pass information to nearby Patriot spies, who would then relay the information to Lafayette. In an unexpected twist of irony, Cornwallis also began trying to use James as a spy against Lafayette. Like the Frenchman, Cornwallis realized using an enslaved person as a spy could prove to be fruitful. One can only imagine Lafayette's reaction when James informed him of Cornwallis' plot. Now James and Lafayette had an opportunity to not only gather information on the enemy, but also to start their own misinformation campaign. James' work as a double-agent made traveling between the two camps easier. Both sides believed he was conducting espionage for them, making his presence in both camps less-suspicious. But that did not mean the mission was without its dangers. If James got caught by the British, it would likely mean a brutal death. While James supplied Lafayette with information, he also fed Cornwallis the misinformation Lafayette devised. James' most important work during the Revolution occurred in the summer of 1781. He wrote a letter to Lafayette, which contained detailed information about Cornwallis' movement from Portsmouth to Yorktown, and the arrival of 10,000 British troops to the region. This intelligence, alongside his previous reports on the condition of Yorktown and placement of soldiers and reinforcements, told Lafayette all he needed to know. Yorktown would be where the Americans made their last major stand against the British. Lafayette sent the information to Washington, and the two commanders began planning a blockade by both land and sea around Yorktown. This siege would destroy Cornwallis' forces, and force the British to surrender to Washington on October 19, 1781. The Long Journey to Freedom The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, but for James Armistead, freedom was a long-time coming. To James' dismay, espionage work was not covered by the Virginia law in 1783, which stated that enslaved men who "have faithfully served agreeable to the terms of their enlistment, and have thereby of course contributed towards the establishment of American liberty and independence, should enjoy the blessings of freedom as a reward for their toils and labours." James began petitioning the Virginia legislature for his freedom, but was continuously ignored. When Lafayette, who had returned to France after the Battle of Yorktown, heard of James' plight, he immediately provided personal testimony. Virginia officials took notice after receiving Lafayette's letter, which stated: "This is to certify that the Bearer has done essential services to me while I had the honour to command in this State. His Intelligence from the ennemy's [sic] camp were industriously collected and most faithfully delivered." As a result of James' petitions and Lafayette's testimony, James was emancipated in 1787, four years after the conclusion of the Revolution, and six years after his service as a spy. In honor of the man who who helped him achieve his own freedom, James changed his name to James Armistead Lafayette. He moved nine miles south of New Kent, Virginia where he lived the rest of his life in relative peace. He became a husband, father, and farmer, and received forty dollars a year from the Virginia legislature for his service to liberate a nation that, for many years, was unwilling to grant him his own freedom. Reunion In 1824, the Marquis de Lafayette embarked on a return journey to America. He toured the United States, eager to see the nation he helped set free from tyranny. By now, most of Lafayette's friends and fellow soldiers had died, including George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and John Laurens. But there was one friend who still lived. As the story goes, when Lafayette rode through Richmond in a massive parade, he saw a familiar face in the crowd. He halted the procession, dismounted from his horse, and worked his way through the crowd until he reached James. Without hesitating, the two embraced each other with great joy. It had been over forty years since they last saw each other, but neither forgot the sacrifices they made to not only achieve freedom for America, but for James Armistead Lafayette himself. James died as a free man in Virginia in 1832. Without his service, the Americans may never have won the Battle of Yorktown--or the Revolutionary War. James is an American hero--and a Revolutionary Voice worthy of being heard, remembered, and honored. Sources:
American Battlefield Trust. "James Armistead Lafayette." Rev War: Biography. www.battlefields.org. Marquis de Lafayette, Memoirs of General Lafayette, 1825. "Lafayette's Testimonial to James Armistead Lafayette," 1784. www.mountvernon.org. "James Armistead Lafayette." www.colonialwilliamsburg.org. Thad Morgan, "How an Enslaved Man-Turned-Spy Helped Secure Victory at the Battle of Yorktown," History, February 4, 2019. www.history.com. Ruth Quinn, "James Armistead Lafayette (1760-1832)," U.S. Army, February 21, 2014. www.army.mil. Want to Learn More? Books: The Indispensable Spy: The Story of James Armistead, by Scarlet Ingstad, illustrated by Zsofia "Zowie" Papp. A Spy Called James: The True Story of James Lafayette, a Revolutionary War Double-Agent, by Anne Rockwell (Children's book). The Marquis: Lafayette Reconsidered, by Laura Aurrichio Hero of Two Worlds: The Marquis de Lafayette in the Age of Revolution, by Mike Duncan Other: - The Lafayette Trail: a non-profit organization dedicated to establishing historical markers, commemorating Lafayette's return-tour of America, and preserving his legacy. - Liberty's Kids: Television show for children, specifically Episode 135: James Armistead. - Colonial Williamsburg's Stephen Seals, historical interpreter and program development manager who portrays James. You can also view his YouTube program here! - Yorktown Battlefield and American Revolution Museum: explore the land where James conducted his espionage work, and take a walk through the museum to learn more about James and other lesser-known figures of the Revolution Preview of October's Article Did you know that America's first ally was not a foreign nation, but a Native American tribe? Tune in next month to learn about The Oneida Nation and a brave Native American woman known as Two Kettles Together! Last Month's Article: Miss the first installment of Revolutionary Voices? No worries! Catch up here to learn about the man who created the Culper Spy Ring: Benjamin Tallmadge!
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James Rivington, known for being a “detestable Tory” and infamous printer of the rumor-spreading Gazetteer, might have actually been a member of the Culper Spy Ring, the very same spy network created by George Washington and Benjamin Tallmadge. “Might have” is the key phrase. For years, historians have debated the accuracy and validity of the sources that claim Rivington was a member of the “Culper Gang.” Some of the accounts read like something out of an espionage novel, the dramatics ramped up and the claims outlandish. But are they? After all, many of the documented exploits and correspondence of the Culper Ring are quite extraordinary. Who’s to say some of the tales about Rivington aren’t at least partially true? In this blog post, I analyze the main sources of Rivington’s alleged spy activity and weigh them against the known information, potential bias of the persons reporting, and analysis of other historians who have weighed in on the issue since the 1800s. Buckle up, because it’s time for a trip back to the secret world of 18th century espionage. The Custis Account In 1860, George Washington Park Custis, grandson to Martha Washington and adopted grandson of George Washington, released his memoirs. In the midst of his revelations, Custis included a story about a printer, a notorious Tory, who dealt primarily in libel against the patriots: James Rivington. Many patriots referred to Rivington as a traitor, a “Judas.” Alexander Hamilton had a strong opinion of Rivington, stating in a 1775 letter to John Jay: “… I am fully sensible how dangerous and pernicious Rivington’s press has been, and how detestable the character of the man is in every respect…” However, about seventy-five years after the war, George Washington Park Custis asked the public to consider a very different view of James Rivington. Custis was unable to pin-point exactly when he believed Rivington joined the cause, but according to his memoir, he estimated it was likely near the end of 1776. Custis also stated that Washington asked two of his officers if they could visit Rivington during his 1783 return to New York. The officers were startled by the request, but allegedly accompanied Washington on the venture. Rivington, shortly after Washington arrived, insisted he and Washington step into a private room nearby. Rivington explained the need to speak with Washington alone because he had a list of “agricultural pieces” he wanted to order from London on Washington’s behalf. As the story goes, one of Washington’s soldiers reported hearing “the chinking of two heavy purses of gold” placed on a table. The officer also said he heard Rivington tell Washington on his way out: “Your Excellency may rely upon my especial attention being given to the agricultural works, which, on their arrival, will be immediately forwarded to Mount Vernon, where I trust they will contribute to your gratification amid the shades of domestic retirement.” Custis’ account explains how Rivington would have been an incredible spy because the Tories trusted him implicitly. His paper, which frequently belittled Washington and his troops, established the perfect cover story. Benson J. Lossing, the editor of the Custis Recollections, believed the account and even provided an additional secondary source. Lossing said Custis received the information about Rivington from Henry “Light Horse” Harry Lee, who in turn had received the tale from an officer who accompanied Washington on the visit with Rivington. Lossing also heard the story from Senator John Hunter, whose source was Rear Admiral Thomas White, a midshipman under Rear Admiral Graves. These secondary and tertiary sources combined were enough for Lossing to believe Custis’ claim that Rivington was likely a spy for Washington. Additional contemporaries who believed the Rivington story included Colonel Stephen Moore of New York, William Hooper of North Carolina, Justice James Iredell of South Carolina, and Ashbel Green, the future president of Princeton. However, these accounts and beliefs were not enough to convince modern-day historians. Since all of Custis’ account came from secondary and tertiary sources, the validity of the story is difficult to prove. Lorenzo Sabine wrote that Rivington was a loyal Tory and denounced any claims to anything that said otherwise in his book Biographical Sketches of Loyalists. Douglass Southall Freeman, the author of the multi-volume series on George Washington, completely threw out the account of Washington’s visit to Rivington, believing it to have been a complete falsehood. But despite their doubts, there is a decent amount of evidence that adds enough suspicion and speculation to make one wonder…was Rivington truly a part of the Culper Ring? Claims and Evidence Near Christmas of 1783, the Massachusetts Gazette printed the details of Washington’s farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern in New York. On this same page, under “Springfield, Dec. 16,” they also printed: “It is reported as an undoubted fact, that Mr. JAMES RIVINGTON, Printer at New-York, was, as soon as our troops entered the city, protected in person and property, by a guard, and that he will be allowed to reside in the country, for reasons best known to the great men at helm.” This obviously drew the attention of the Massachusetts inhabitants, and created a significant amount of speculation regarding Rivington’s role as a double-agent for Washington. This paragraph was later reprinted in the 1783 Christmas publications of the Massachusetts Spy (Worcester, MA), Continental Journal (Boston), and the Salem Gazette (Salem, MA). Two weeks later, Rivington officially shut down his printing press after some well-known Sons of Liberty forcefully encouraged him to do so. About eight and a half years ago, Rivington put up a fight against the Sons of Liberty when they destroyed his original press, but this time, he willingly obeyed. Ashbel Green, a chaplain to the U.S. Congress from 1792 through 1800 and president of Princeton, added to the gossip through his letter to “My Dear A” in 1840: “At the commencement of our Revolution, and indeed through the whole of its progress, the patriots of the day made great use of the press, in operating on the public mind. The tories attempted the same, as long as they were permitted to do it, which was till about the time of the declaration of our independence. After that, they could circulate nothing, except what was printed within the British lines, and sent forth and handed about privately… “Rivington remained in the city of New York after it was abandoned by the American troops, and became king’s printer during the whole of the ensuing war, and nothing could exceed the violence of his abuse of the rebels, as he delighted to call the Americans, and the contempt with which he affected to treat their army, and Mr. Washington, its leader. It was, therefore, a matter of universal surprise, on the return of peace, that this most obnoxious man remained after the departure of the British troops. But the surprise soon ceased, by its becoming publicly known, that he had been a spy for General Washington, while employed in abusing him, and had imparted useful information, which could not otherwise have been obtained. He had, in foresight of the evacuation of New York by the British army, supplied himself from London with a large assortment of what are called the British classics, and other works of merit; so that, for some time after the conclusion of the war, he had the sale of these publications almost wholly to himself.” Why was Rivington allowed to remain in New York when the rest of the British forces fled? And why would so many contemporaries continue to share this story if there was no truth to it at all? Why did Alexander Hamilton take Rivington’s part in 1789? Why would Rivington sell books to Hamilton, as indicated by correspondence between the two parties in May of 1791, if Hamilton still held Rivington in the same contempt that he did in 1775? Why did Washington remove a segment of a letter to Governor Clinton in 1783 that spoke negatively about Rivington? Perhaps, just perhaps, the answer to these questions is simply that Rivington used his position as the King’s printer as the ultimate cover-story for pro-patriot espionage activities. It would explain the changing attitudes and writings of Washington and Hamilton, and answer the questions regarding Rivington’s post-war activities and location. Rivington was often described as an opportunist. This would explain why he was allegedly approached by Culper Spy Ring member Robert Townsend. Ashbel Green described Rivington as “the greatest sycophant imaginable; very little under the influence of any principle but self-interest.” Additionally, British Major Francis Duncan claimed Rivington started assisting the rebels with information when he realized the French alliance would turn the tide of the war in the rebel’s favor. Could it be said that Rivington, a man who seemed to change with the tide, became a spy not only for potential financial gain, but also self-preservation? This would, of course, counter Custis’ account which stated Rivington joined the rebel cause as a spy in late 1776. The scant evidence and hearsay make the truth of the matter difficult to uncover, but the evidence does point to the fact that it is very possible Rivington could have been involved in the Culper Ring, for a short amount of time, or sporadically as it benefited him. Additional evidence in Allan McLane’s memoirs points to the probability of Rivington’s espionage exploits. McLane was one of Washington’s most valuable informants, so valuable in fact, that he acquired the code of signals of the British Naval fleet from—Rivington himself. In 1781, the Board of War dispatched McLane to Long Island in an effort to obtain intelligence on the British fleet’s movements. Rivington gave McLane the information he requested. McLane recounts this venture in his memoir, stating: “After I returned in the fall was imployed by the board of war to repair to Long Island to watch the motion of the Brittish fleet and if possible obtain their Signals which I did threw the assistance of the noteed [sic] Rivington.” It is without a doubt, at least in this one instance, that Rivington did conduct some espionage activity for the patriots. The question remains, however, as to whether or not Rivington’s activities remained only in 1781, or if, according to other aforementioned accounts, he began earlier in either 1776 or 1778. Was he an actual member of the Culper Ring? Or was this instance a one-off oddity? Culper Connections The Sons of Liberty destroyed Rivington’s original press, forcing Rivington to flee to England in early 1776. He returned to New York after it was under British control, and opened a new press in 1777 under the banner of “Printer to His Majesty.” His newspaper began again on October 4, 1777 under the new title of Rivington’s New-York Gazette. However, starting in 1779, his business began to decline. During this time, Rivington also opened up a coffee house to supplement his declining printing business. British officers frequented the shop and Rivington used their gossip as fodder for his papers. It is easy to see how this could quickly turn into an espionage effort, had Rivington truly decided to assist the patriots. The kicker? Robert Townsend partially funded his coffee house. Robert Townsend: also known as, Culper Jr., a prominent member of the Culper Spy Ring. Austin Roe, another member of the spy ring, also purchased Rivington’s paper by the half ream at Rivington’s store. It is said that Rivington’s paper was used to send messages throughout the Culper Spy Ring, using invisible ink. These messages were referred to by George Washington in his correspondence to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, the Culper Spy Ring founder and leader. The opportunity would have been almost impossible to resist for Robert Townsend: a coffee house full of gossiping British officers, a printing press, and a man who had a reputation for being an opportunist. James Rivington was a spy’s dream. Knowing this, it is easy to believe the possibility that Townsend approached Rivington with a proposal, and that Rivington took it. An interesting note is that Rivington did not have both a codename and a code number in Tallmadge’s code book. Rivington’s number was 726, but many other non-British agents also had code numbers in Tallmadge’s book. The majority of the spy ring itself had corresponding codenames. Ralph E. Webster explained in his book, United States Diplomatic Codes and Ciphers: 1775-1938 that this meant Rivington did not possess the same double-protection that Tallmadge, Townsend, Woodhull, and others had. It also provides evidence that Rivington, if he was a true Culper Ring member, likely did not join the group before July of 1779 – when Benjamin Tallmadge created the code. If Rivington was not an agent in the ring as of mid-1779, it makes sense as to why Tallmadge would have just given Rivington a number in the book, just like the other non-agents. While there is plenty of circumstantial evidence to point to Rivington being one of the Culper Ring spies, there is also evidence to the contrary. A letter from Townsend to Washington on July 15, 1779 points to his concerns about Rivington discovering the Culper Ring. This concern originated from a newspaper article that Rivington published five days prior to Townsend’s letter. It reads: “Still the rebels cherish one another with assurances, of eating their next Christmas dinner in New-York… Indeed Mr. Washington has declared he will very soon visit that Capital with his army, as it is confessed, without the least reserve, there are many Sons of liberty in New-York, that hold a constant intercourse and correspondence with the Commander in Chief of the Rebel army, from whom he is supplied with accurate communications of all arrivals and departures, and of every thing daily carrying on there, both in the military and civil branches.” Conclusion? In my opinion, based on the available evidence, circumstantial and otherwise, Rivington was involved in the Culper Spy Ring, but not before 1779. His opportunistic personality lends me to believe that, combined with the evidence and hearsay accounts, he would have likely remained a loyal Tory until right around when the French aid was assured. Tallmadge’s codebook also points to mid-to-late 1779 being the time period where Rivington may have started working as a spy. I also believe he could have played both sides as the direction of the war ebbed and flowed from one side to the other; he was ever the opportunist, after all. Rivington’s motivation was clearly self-preservation rather than patriotism, or any sort of real conviction for either the American or British cause. Additionally, the circumstantial evidence points to 1779 as “the year” Rivington would have conducted espionage work in some fashion. The absolute earliest I can see Rivington toying with the idea of spy work for Washington would have been around mid-1778, with him not taking any actual action until 1779. The truth of the matter is, we will likely never know for sure exactly when Rivington decided to engage in espionage with the patriots, or the extent to which he did. But that is the trouble with studying the history of 18th century espionage—these men and women were very good at what they did. We just discovered a year ago that Benjamin Tallmadge’s desk contains a secret compartment. Perhaps we will also one day uncover new evidence about Rivington’s connection to the Culper Ring. Sources and Additional Reading: Alexander Hamilton to James Rivington, May 26, 1791. www.founders.archives.gov Alexander Hamilton to John Jay, Nov. 26, 1775, www.founders.archives.gov Alexander Hamilton to Robert R. Livingston, March 13, 1789, Robert R. Livingston Collection. Alexander Rose, Washington’s Spies: The Story of America’s First Spy Ring (New York: Bantam Books), 2006. Ashbel Green to “My Dear A.” June 30, 1840, The Life of Ashbel Green, ed. Joseph H. Jones (New York, 1849), p 45.Isaiah Thomas, The History of Printing in America (Worcester, 1810), 112. Benjamin Tallmadge, The Memoirs of Benjamin Tallmadge. (Columbia, 2016). Catherine Snell Crary. “The Tory and the Spy: The Double Life of James Rivington,” The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 16 No. 1, January 1959, 61-72. Charles R. Hildeburn, Sketches of Printers and Printing in Colonial New York. (New York, 1895), 132. George Washington and Benjamin Tallmadge correspondence from 1778-1783, Founders Online. https://founders.archives.gov/; June 27, 1779; July 25, 1779; July 27, 1779. George Washington Parke Custis, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington, ed., Benson J. Lossing (New York, 1860), 293-299. John A. Nagy Invisible Ink: Spycraft of the American Revolution (Yardley: Westholme Publishing), 2010. Kara Pierce, “A Revolutionary Masquerade: The Chronicles of James Rivington,” Binghamton Journal of History, Spring 2006. http://www2.binghamton.edu/history/resources/journal-of-history/chronicles-of-james-rivington.html. Lorenzo Sabine, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution (Boston, 1864). Massachusetts Gazette (Springfield, MA), December 16, 1783. Massachusetts Gazette (Springfield, MA), January 27, 1784. Morton Pennypacker, General Washington’s Spies on Long Island and in New York (Brooklyn, 1939). Philip Ranlet, The New York Loyalists, (Knoxville, 1986), p 59. Gouverneur Morris, Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, vol 12, (Washington: 1904-1937), p 1061. Ralph E. Weber, United States Diplomatic Codes and Ciphers: 1775-1938 (New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2010), p 109. Royal Gazette, July 10, 1779. Samuel Culper, Jr. to Major Benjamin Tallmadge, July 15, 1779, The Papers of George Washington, The Revolutionary War Series, William M. Ferraro, ed., (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2012) vol 21, p 714-15. Todd Andrlik, “James Rivington: King’s Printer and Patriot Spy?” Journal of the American Revolution, March 3, 2014. https://allthingsliberty.com/2014/03/james-rivington-kings-printer-patriot-spy/. Ever wonder how Tallmadge and his spies used invisible ink or wrote on hard-boiled eggs? Today I want to introduce you all to a few different, fun ways to teach your kids (or yourself!) about 18th century espionage. During the lockdown in 2020, I played around with a few of these myself to pass the time and thought I would share some tips and tricks, as well as recipes, ideas, and other fun ways to teach your kids about this era of history. This is a great way to educate young people after they watch TURN: Washington's Spies! Invisible Ink on Paper We'll start with creating the ink and the reeagent, then move on to how in the world Abraham Woodhull wrote on those hard-boiled eggs. Some background on the ink itself: Both British and American armies used invisible ink to send coded and hidden messages. Revolutionary war ink was typically a combination of ferrous sulfate and water. James Jay, the brother of John Jay, invented a chemical solution out of tannic acid to be used as invisible ink as well. He was the main supplier of invisible ink to Washington, Tallmadge, and their spies. The letters were written, usually between the lines of printed books, and then treated with heat or another chemical agent to reveal the hidden message. So how can we recreate invisible ink today as part of a hands-on-learning lesson? It's actually fairly simple and there are different methods you can try using house-hold items: When I was playing around with these techniques during the pandemic, I had the best luck with option #1, the baking soda. I did learn that if you are not patient with the drying portion, the messages don't turn out all that well--patience is key! Instead of using the light bulb as the graphic depicts, I used the iodine and water re-agent solution. If you happen to try any heat-based "re-agent" method, let me know if it works! Invisible Ink and Eggs Now for the extremely tricky part---just HOW did Woodhull and the spies successfully write on hard-boiled eggs in TURN: Washington's Spies?! As Washington would say on the show: "Excellent question." I had a HECK of a time with this one, and it took about 2 dozen eggs til I got it figured out, but it was definitely worth the experiment. The best method for this activity that I found came from a blog post on readwatcheat.com (see below). I highly recommend following these instructions! Crafting and Decoding Messages
When you get tired of turning your kitchen into a complete mess, you can also get your kiddos (again, or just yourself) involved in crafting and decoding secret messages to one another or their friends! This is the easiest activity of all, because we have access to Benjamin Tallmadge's original codebook thanks to Mount Vernon! You can print out a copy of it through this link: Tallmadge's Codebook, or you can purchase a super-affordable paper copy through this link: Tallmadge Printed Codebook. The rest is really simple. Have the kids craft a message to a friend or family member utilizing the codebook. Try to get them to use as many numerical codes as possible for an extra challenge. Then, have the other child or family member decode the message and respond to it. You can also turn this into a mystery game, having them solve riddles, etc. Great way to pass the time and it lets the children use the very same codes Tallmadge and his spies used during the Revolutionary War! Additional Resources: A few more sources I used in crafting this blog post as well as some links to additional spy-games and information that might be useful for those who have children who are enamored by TURN: Washington's Spies or even Hamilton the Musical. Getting kids involved in history early is so important, and activities like these are great way to do it! And adults, don't be afraid to do these on your own too--I did! Share your thoughts below or send me a message and let me know how the activities went, tips and tricks, etc! - The Culper Spy Ring for Kids - History for Kids: SPIES! - Spy Techniques of the Revolutionary War - George Washington's Culper Spy Ring: Separating Fact from Fiction - Culper Spy Ring - Mount Vernon Digital Archives Welcome back to Revolution Untold! Today, I'd like to introduce you to a member of Benjamin Tallmadge's spy network: Anna Smith Strong. Anna was born on April 14, 1740 in Setauket, New York. She married a man named Selah Strong in 1760, and they had nine children. Selah was a Patriot judge and Anna's family owned a Long Island manor. Her home in Setauket, alongside her husband's political position, made the family a target for the British soldiers who occupied Long Island late in 1776. In 1778, Selah was arrested and put on a British prison ship called the Jersey in New York harbor. He was accused of "surreptitious correspondence with the enemy." Prison ship conditions were horrendous, and many who boarded them as prisoners usually departed through death. After fiercely contesting the allegations, Anna managed to acquire permission to board the ship to bring her husband necessary provisions. Luckily for Selah, Anna also had wealthy Tory (pro-British) relatives who aided in bribing British officials to have Selah paroled in Connecticut instead. Selah would remain here for the rest of the war, taking the couple's children with him. With her husband and children gone, Anna was left alone on Strong's Neck during the thick of the Revolution. Anna opted to stay in her family's manor because empty dwellings during this time were often looted and destroyed. It was during this time that Anna entered into the world of espionage, alongside her fellow friends and neighbors: Abraham Woodhull, Caleb Brewster, and Benjamin Tallmadge. Caleb Brewster often crossed the Long Island Sound (Devil's Belt, as they referred to it), to drop off and receive messages for and from the Culper Ring. Having already been identified by the British as a spy, Brewster's efforts had to be even more clandestine than ever. Because of this, Brewster would hide his boat in one of six different locations to throw off the British soldiers. The issue became quickly apparent: how was Woodhull to know which cove Brewster landed in on any given day? The answer? Abraham Woodhull's neighbor, Anna Smith Strong. Tallmadge and Woodhull approached Anna and requested her assistance with the ring. Given what she had already endured with her husband, chances are, Anna did not hesitate when asked to help subvert British efforts. She, along with Woodhull, devised a system of hanging laundry to indicate when and where Brewster arrived to pick up and drop off the intelligence. When Anna hung a black petticoat on the line, it signaled to Woodhull that Brewster had arrived in town. The number of white handkerchiefs Anna hung next to the petticoat indicated which cove his boat was located in. Equipped with this information, Woodhull was able to disappear under the cover of night to find Brewster and complete their information transaction. From there, Brewster would travel back across the sound, and deliver the information to Tallmadge. Anna is not mentioned in any of the Culper Spy letters, however there are numerous mentions of her property and the British movements in and around her home. Some historians believe she is the mysterious "355" mentioned in some of the letters. According to Tallmadge's code book, "355" stood for "lady." Other more recent theories have emerged regarding the identity of Agent 355, but those theories will be explored in a future blog post. When the British occupied Anna's family manor later in the war, she moved to a small home across from Woodhull's property so she could keep her eye on the farm and the main house. Throughout the war, Anna assisted the ring through the hanging of her laundry, and possibly other efforts that we may never know about. Anna, like the rest of the Culper Ring, was never caught. Not much information exists regarding what happened to Anna Strong after the war, but we do know that she lived the rest of her life in peace on Setauket with her husband and their children. Anna died on August 12, 1812 and was buried in Setauket in the Saint Georges Manor Cemetery. Anna Smith Strong was a wife, a mother, a spy, and a patriot. She is a Revolutionary Voice worthy of being heard. Sources and Recommended Reading: - My blog post on Benjamin Tallmadge - National Women's History Museum: https://www.womenshistory.org/articles/revolutionary-spies - History of American Women Blog: https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2011/07/anna-smith-strong.html - Culper Spy Ring, Mount Vernon: https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/culper-spy-ring/ - Anna Strong: A Spy During the American Revolution - children's book by Sarah Glenn Marsh - Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring by Alexander Rose - Spies, Patriots, and Traitors: American Intelligence in the Revolutionary War by Kenneth A. Daigler - George Washington, Spymaster: How the Americans Outspied the British and Won the Revolutionary War by Thomas B. Allen - Memoir of Benjamin Tallmadge by Benjamin Tallmadge - Invisible Ink: Spycraft of the American Revolution by John A. Nagy - Spies of Revolutionary Connecticut: From Benedict Arnold to Nathan Hale by Mark Allen Baker Allow me to introduce you to an incredible woman. She is not only the artist of all my American Revolution projects, she is also an amazing friend, and a historian in her own right. Meet Zsofia "Zowie" Papp - Hungarian American Revolution artist. So what drew Zowie into the world of the American Revolution? Believe it or not, it was actually the video game Assassin's Creed and a certain historical figure featured in the game - Benjamin Tallmadge (see this month's post on Tallmadge to learn more about Washington's spymaster). Shortly after learning about Tallmadge through the game, Zowie discovered the television show TURN: Washington's Spies. Through these two historical-fiction-esque avenues, the world of the American Revolution quickly took hold in Zowie's mind--and in her artwork. Zowie's favorite historical figure from this era is Nathan Hale, the spy who was caught by Robert Rogers and subsequently hanged. Hale was also Benjamin Tallmadge's best friend and dorm-mate at Yale University. Zowie has collected every piece of information available about Hale's life and his short, but impactful career as a spy for George Washington. Our mutual passion for 18th century espionage would later assist in helping us become the best of friends. Thanks to the world of history-twitter, Zowie and I crossed paths. I saw one of our mutual followers retweet some of her artwork and I was enamored. I started ordering some of her prints from her redbubble shop and soon after, requested some custom artwork. As I began to work on my book about James Armistead Lafayette, I realized I needed a cover artist. There was no doubt in my mind exactly who I wanted to do the artwork for this project. The rest? Well, it's history. Our first collaboration project sold incredibly well and the reception was wonderful. There was no doubt in our minds that this was something we needed to continue--so we are. Currently, Zowie and I are working on a children's book series called "Revolutionary Voices," also the title of my monthly article series I share on this blog. This series is aimed at introducing children and adults alike to stories of American Revolution heroes and heroines they may never have heard of before. In addition to this series, we are working hard to complete the first book of a young adult historical fiction duology, starring Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Tallmadge, and the Marquis de Lafayette. The first book is scheduled to be released this December and is full of original sketches done by Zowie herself. Down the road, we will be working on a new project we just started coming up with--a standalone historical fiction novel about a woman who chooses to dress like a man in order to join in the American Revolution--but as a Loyalist. We'll share more as the project develops further. Zowie's concept artwork for my main character, Charlotte (see below) is incredible. Want to follow along with us and our projects? Follow Zowie and/or me on twitter! We post sneak peeks and updates regularly. Also be sure to visit Zowie's redbubble page and purchase some of her prints to support her work! Welcome to my new series, Revolutionary Voices, where I seek to highlight the names and stories of American Revolutionary War heroes and heroines who have, by and large, gone untold. America is a diverse and beautiful nation, and her history should reflect this fact. We owe our freedom to those whose names we do not know. It is my goal to help change this. Future installments of this series will be posted at the beginning of each month. Did you know that America’s first head of military intelligence also founded its first spy network? Did you know that he also was only in his 20s and spent his post-years fighting for the rights of others? Meet Major Benjamin Tallmadge: Soldier. Spy. Revolutionary. Humble Beginnings Tallmadge served in the American Revolution from 1776 all the way through 1783. He was born and raised in Setauket, New York on Long Island and was the second of five sons, born to Reverend Benjamin Tallmadge and Mrs. Susannah Tallmadge. He received his education from Yale University, graduating in 1773. During his time at Yale, Tallmadge befriended a man by the name of Nathan Hale. They were dorm mates and became fast friends. Hale operated as a spy for George Washington shortly after graduating from Yale, but was caught by the British (Robert Rogers to be exact), and subsequently hanged in September of 1776. This event likely had a lasting impact on Tallmadge and may have affected some of the decisions he made with the creation of the spy network. After Yale, Tallmadge took a position as a teacher in Connecticut. However, after the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Battle of Bunker Hill, he considered joining the ranks of the newly-formed Continental Army. In 1776, a lieutenant position opened up in a Connecticut Regiment. Captain Chester of Wethersfield offered it to Tallmadge and he readily accepted the position. His first engagement was at the Battle of Long Island in August of 1776. During the battle, his older brother, William, was taken prisoner and, according to Tallmadge’s memoir, his brother “literally starved to death in one of [the British] prisons." Rising Ambition Despite the back-to-back deaths of both his best friend and his older brother, Tallmadge found a way to press forward. He earned the rank of major and was put in charge of a dragoon unit. He then fought in the Battle of Brandywine and the Battle of Monmouth. But it would not be long before Tallmadge received yet another promotion, this time, from the head of the Continental Army himself. In the summer of 1778, General George Washington appointed Tallmadge to the position of director of military intelligence and ordered him to create a spy network. The British had already been running their own complex network, and both Washington and Tallmadge saw the need and benefit of developing their own, utilizing innovative methods that would go on to define American espionage and lay the foundation for the future of American intelligence operations. The Culper Spy Ring For the spy network, Tallmadge recruited not fellow soldiers, but friends he grew up with on Long Island. They included Caleb Brewster, Abraham Woodhull, Austin Roe, and Anna Strong. Brewster operated as a whaleboatman and part-time privateer before serving in the Continental Army. He later became a courier, transporting information from Connecticut across Long Island Sound to Woodhull in Setauket. Roe delivered messages between New York City and Setauket, using the excuse of obtaining supplies in town for his tavern as his cover story. Strong hung laundry using a system of signals for the ring. She hung a black petticoat on the line to signal that Brewster was in place with the intelligence, and then she would hang one to six white handkerchiefs to indicate which of the six coves he was waiting in. This complex system later became known as The Culper Spy Ring, named by Washington after Culpeper County, Virginia. As the Culper Ring developed, Tallmadge added another man by the name of Robert Townsend, stationed in New York. Having a spy inside the British-occupied city provided valuable intelligence for the ring. Tallmadge and Washington also developed a complex system of numerical codes alongside code names to disguise their messages from British interception. Tallmadge created code books and distributed them to the members of the ring so they could decode and craft their messages. Tallmadge later began to use what was called “sympathetic stain,” a form of invisible ink, invented by Dr. James Jay, the brother of John Jay. The messages were written using this ink, then once the letter reached its destination, it was treated with a re-agent that revealed the hidden message. Major Accomplishments The Culper Ring stopped a sizeable British fleet from sailing into Rhode Island in July of 1780, thanks to intelligence that was passed from Woodhull to Tallmadge. A subsequent misinformation campaign conducted by Tallmadge and Washington diverted the British troops and prevented an ambush, allowing for the safe arrival of the Marquis de Lafayette, Comte de Rochambeau, and their 6,000 troops. Tallmadge played a critical role in the capture of Major John Andre, the head of British intelligence and the same man who turned Benedict Arnold, the infamous American traitor. Were it not for Tallmadge’s quick thinking and good instincts, Andre might have gotten away with critical information about West Point. Had he done so, this would have created a disastrous situation for Washington’s forces and possibly could have cost them the war. Major Andre was later hung as a spy. Post-War Efforts In 1800, Tallmadge was elected to the House of Representatives as a Federalist and served until 1817. During his last year of service, Tallmadge did something that baffled many: he defended the legacy of Major John Andre against the three men who captured him. These three men petitioned Congress, 40 years after the fact, for increased pensions for the capture of Andre. Tallmadge took to the Congress floor and adamantly argued against their claims, stating that the men were nothing but opportunistic cowards who would have let Andre go if only he’d had more money on him at the time. Tallmadge said the only reason they even found the correspondence from Benedict Arnold in Andre’s boots was because they were searching for loot. Their actions were not patriotic, but rather they were self-serving. Why did the former head of American intelligence defend the former head of British intelligence? Alexander Rose posits in his book, Washington’s Spies, that Tallmadge was defending John Andre out of respect for both him and the dangerous business they were both involved in during the war. In the television show TURN: Washington’s Spies, the narrator (Abraham Woodhull) states that Tallmadge did this because “if we spies don’t look out for each other, who will?” At the end of Tallmadge’s term in Congress, he became heavily involved in philanthropy efforts. He fought for the rights of women, Native Americans, and even became an ardent abolitionist as his religious views changed. He also established the Litchfield Society Ameliorating the Condition of the Jews, an early attempt to thwart anti-Semitism in America. Benjamin Tallmadge died in 1835 at 81 years old. The man who helped establish the very foundations of American intelligence and espionage spent the last years of his life fighting for the rights of others. He is, in every sense of the word, an American hero and a Revolutionary Voice worthy of being heard. Sources George Washington and Benjamin Tallmadge correspondence from 1778-1783, Founders Online. https://founders.archives.gov/. Rose, Alexander. Washington’s Spies: The Story of America’s First Spy Ring (New York: Bantam Books Trade Paperbacks), 278. Tallmadge, Benjamin. Memoir of Benjamin Tallmadge: Leader of the Culper Spy Ring (Columbia, 2016). White, Kathryn. “Benjamin Tallmadge,” George Washington University, Washington Library, Center for Digital History. Want to Learn More? Books: George Washington, Spymaster: How the Americans Outspied the British and Won the Revolutionary War by Thomas B. Allen Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring by Alexander Rose Memoir of Benjamin Tallmadge: Leader of the Culper Spy Ring by Benjamin Tallmadge -Invisible Ink: Spycraft of the American Revolution by John A. Nagy Web Sources: George Washington’s Mount Vernon: o Tallmadge o Washington, Spymaster o Culper Ring o Culper Code Book Founders Online Digital Archive: o Search for Tallmadge, Brewster, Anna Strong, Culper, and Woodhull to find correspondence between members of the Culper Ring Benjamin Tallmadge District website Litchfield Historical Society Other: TURN: Washington’s Spies – Television show with all 4 seasons available on Netflix. This show is based on the Culper Ring, with Benjamin Tallmadge as a main character. However, it should be viewed through a historical fiction lens. It’s phenomenally written and with a wonderful cast. Next Month’s Hero Did you know that America’s first double-agent was an enslaved man? Or that his efforts played a vital role in America’s victory in the final decisive battle of the Revolution? Watch for next month’s post of Revolutionary Voices to learn more about the incredible story of James Armistead Lafayette! |
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Scarlet Ingstad
I am an independent author and historian seeking to uplift the stories of the lesser-known heroes and heroines of the American Revolution, alongside modern-day heroes and heroines who have served in the U.S. military and continue their service through their historical work. Archives
March 2022
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